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Emerging role of PET/CT in osteosarcoma

January 10, 2016

Volume 2 | Issue 1 | Jan-Apr 2016 | Page 19-21 |Nilendu C Purandare1, Venkatesh Rangarajan1 Nilendu C Purandare[1], Venkatesh Rangarajan[1] Department of Nuclear Medicine and Molecular Imaging, Tata Memorial Hospital, Parel, Mumbai 400012 Address of Correspondence Dr.Nilendu C Purandare Department of Nuclear Medicine and Molecular Imaging, Tata Memorial Hospital, Parel, Mumbai 400012 Email: nilpurandare@gmail.com Abstract […]

How important are surgical margins in Osteosarcoma?

January 10, 2016

Volume 2 | Issue 1 | Jan-Apr 2016 | Page 22-26 |Thomas P Cloake, Lee M Jeys. Authors: Thomas P Cloake[1], Lee M Jeys[2]. [1]The Royal Orthopaedic Hospital, Bristol Road South, Birmingham, B31 2AP, UK. [2]School of Health and Life Sciences, Aston University, Aston Triangle, Birmingham, B4 7ET, UK. Address of Correspondence Professor Lee M. Jeys […]

Emerging role of PET/CT in osteosarcoma

January 10, 2016

How important are surgical margins in Osteosarcoma?

January 10, 2016

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Emerging role of PET/CT in osteosarcoma

January 10, 2016

Volume 2 | Issue 1 | Jan-Apr 2016 | Page 19-21 |Nilendu C Purandare1, Venkatesh Rangarajan1

Nilendu C Purandare[1], Venkatesh Rangarajan[1]

Department of Nuclear Medicine and Molecular Imaging, Tata Memorial Hospital, Parel, Mumbai 400012

Address of Correspondence
Dr.Nilendu C Purandare
Department of Nuclear Medicine and Molecular Imaging, Tata Memorial Hospital, Parel, Mumbai 400012
Email: nilpurandare@gmail.com

Abstract

The role of PET/CT in malignant tumors has grown exponentially in the past few years. Newer methods have been investigated and older methods have been refined. This article is a brief review of its current and potential utility in osteosarcoma.
Keywords: PET/CT radioisotope scans, osteosarcoma.

Introduction:
FDG PET/CT has been used to evaluate various malignancies including those of the musculoskeletal system. It is an imaging technique that provides information about the metabolic changes associated with cancer. PET imaging uses molecules that are labelled with radio nuclides. In clinical PET practice the principal radio-isotope used is the positron emitting 18 F-FDG which is a glucose analogue labelled with radionuclide 18 F. FDG is injected intravenously and is transported from the plasma to the cells by glucose transporters (GLUT 1 & GLUT 4). It then undergoes phosphorylation within the cell by the enzyme hexokinase and is converted to FDG-6-phosphate. FDG-6-phosphate does not get further metabolised and gets trapped in the cell. Cancer cells demonstrate increased anaerobic glycolysis (Warburg effect) which is believed to be due to upregulation of glucose transporters and hexokinase and reduced levels of glucose-6-phosphatase thus limiting further metabolism of the tracer in cancer cells [1]. Thus FDG PET provides unique functional information by taking advantage of the propensity of malignant tumors to demonstrate increased glucose utilization (metabolism) as compared with normal tissue. A semiquantitative measure of the metabolic activity (corrected for the amount of radiotracer injected per kilogram of body weight and for blood glucose level) is known as the standard uptake value (SUV) . Although the degree to which both benign and malignant tumors accumulate FDG can be quite variable, malignant tumors tend to have higher SUV values. In general significant difference is noted in the SUV of benign and malignant primary bone tumors. It should be noted that the interpretation of absolute SUV values can be misleading. No cutoff value of SUV can be established in clinical practice to reliably differentiate benign from malignant primary bone tumors. Osteosarcomas (OGS) and Ewings sarcomas tend to be FDG avid whereas chondrosarcomas and soft tissue sarcomas showing a wide range of uptake depending on the histology and grade of the tumor. Since OGS is FDG concentrating tumor, FDG PET can be used for staging and restaging. FDG PET can also be used to monitor response to neo-adjuvant chemotherapy and as a prognostic and predictive marker.

Use of FDG PET in staging:
Effective treatment stratification in patients with musculoskeletal malignancies requires accurate assessment of the extent of primary tumor and evaluation for the presence of metastatic disease. MRI is the modality of choice in assessing the local extent of the primary lesion for surgical planning and PET plays a limited role. However PET may allow the noninvasive estimation of the histologic grade of tumors. The SUV of bone and soft tissue sarcomas has been used as a prognostic marker to predict patient outcomes. It has been shown that the baseline SUVmax is an independent predictor of overall survival [2]. Also FDG accumulation within a large heterogeneous tumor allows identification of the areas with the highest biologic activity. This can allow targeted biopsy from the most metabolically viable portion of the tumor, which can help in ascertaining the accurate histological grade [3]. Since OGS metastasizes to multiple skeletal sites an accurate whole body bone imaging modality is important for accurate staging. Bone scanning using 99m Tc- methylene diphosphonate(MDP) has been for several years the work horse for detection of skeletal metastases in several cancers including OGS. MDP bone scan seems to be well suited to detect skeletal involvement because of the osteoblastic nature of skeletal metastases in OGS which can be detected by a conventional MDP bone scintigraphy with a high degree of sensitivity. However MDP bone scanning can suffer from limited spatial resolution due to planar imaging. In addition the high tracer uptake in the region of the growth plates can also conceal metastatic lesions. Another limitation of bone scanning is the high number of false positives and indeterminate findings which need further confirmation with anatomical imaging. Recent studies have shown a better sensitivity of FDG PET/CT than MDP bone scan primarily due to its greater ability to detect metastases in the region of the growth plate which are often masked on bone scans [4]. Addition of CT information in an integrated PET/CT scan also reduce the number of false positives leading to better accuracy compared to bone scintigraphy. Volker et al in their study in paediatric sarcomas (Ewings, OGS & RMS) showed a higher sensitivity of FDG PET (88%) over conventional imaging (37%) for skeletal metastases from Ewings sarcoma [5]. The sensitivity however was not much different (90% for PET Vs 81% for conventional imaging) for skeletal metastases in OGS. PET was superior to conventional imaging in the correct detection of lymph node involvement (sensitivity, 95% v 25% respectively). With the availability of integrated PET/CT machines, pulmonary metastases can be diagnosed using the CT component of the PET/CT study with same accuracy as that of a chest CT obviating the need for a separate CT examination of the chest. Thus an integrated FDG PET/CT can serve as a single stop shop modality for metastatic work up of OGS patients (figure 1). Various metabolic parameters can be obtained from the FDG PET/CT study that provide valuable prognostic information. Metabolic tumor volume (MTV) and total lesion glycolysis (TLG) are indicators of tumor metabolism which are independent prognostic markers and can predict metastases and survival in OGS [6].

Role of FDG PET as a surrogate marker in assessing response to neoadjuvant therapy:
Since functional and biochemical changes in a tumor in response to therapy occur much earlier than morphologic changes, FDG PET has proven to be very useful in looking at tumor viability before the changes are evident on standard morphological imaging techniques. Various studies have found a strong correlation between the degree of tumor necrosis on histology following neo-adjucvant chemotherapy and reduction in FDG concentration in Osteosarcomas [7,8]. In patients classified as having a good response to chemotherapy there is significant reduction in tumor FDG concentration (figure 2). Thus PET using FDG can be potentially used as a non-invasive surrogate to predict response as well for prognostication [9]. A multiparameter analysis technique based on kinetic 18F-FDG data (dynamic PET) of a baseline study and after 2 cycles is helpful for the very early prediction of chemosensitivity in patients with soft-tissue sarcomas receiving neoadjuvant chemotherapy. This can have potential implications on management in the form of whether to change or intensify chemotherapy or to decide whether to salvage or ampute the limb in chemo non-responsive tumors.

Role of FDG PET in detection of disease recurrence:
Conventional imaging modalities such as CT and MR imaging are limited in their ability to differentiate treatment related changes from recurrent tumor. Distortion of normal anatomy, symmetry and tissue planes following surgery or radiation therapy makes detection of tumor recurrence difficult. Also degradation of image quality due to artifiacts produced by metallic prosthesis limits evaluation of local tumor recurrence. The whole body imaging capabilities of FDG PET allow detection of local as well as distant tumor recurrence. FDG PET/CT is useful in detecting recurrence at the primary site and is often complementary to other imaging modalities [9]. It is fairly accurate in detecting sites of distant failure as well. Its potential benefits and limitations compared to conventional imaging modalities will have be studied in larger homogenous patient groups.

18F Sodium fluoride (NaF) PET scan:
18F NaF is a bone seeking radiotracer which was introduced way back in 1962 for skeletal imaging [10]. The availability of integrated PET/CT systems has led to a renewed interest in the use of 18F-NaF for imaging skeletal metastases (Fig. 3). PET/CT imaging allows high-resolution functional imaging of the skeleton with greater sensitivity than that of planar scintigraphy/MDP bone scans. Integrated PET and CT system allows the interpretation of 18FNaF in conjunction with CT images. This enables better morphologic characterization and improved differentiation between benign and malignant lesions reducing the number if false positives and the indeterminate lesions. Studies have shown better accuracy and lesions detectability for 18F NaF PET scans as compared to MDP bone scans in several cancers.(11,12). 18F NaF PET/CT scan can image skeletal as well as lung metastases in a single examination and can be used for metastatic work up of OGS patients. Comparison of the diagnostic accuracy and cost effectiveness of FDG PET/CT and NaF PET/CT in OGS patients has not been investigated in detail and studies addressing the same need to be carried out.

References

1. Warburg O, Wind F, Negelein E. The metabolism of tumors. J Gen Physiol 1927;8:519-30.
2. Brenner W, Bohuslavizki KH, Eary JF. PET imaging of osteosarcoma. J Nucl Med 2003;44:930–942.
3. Eary JF, Conrad EU, Bruckner JD, et al. Quantitative[F-18] fluorodeoxyglucose positron emission tomography in pretreatment and grading of sarcoma. Clin Cancer Res 1998;4:1215–1220.
4. Byun BH, Kong CB, Lim I et al. Comparison of (18)F-FDG PET/CT and (99 m)Tc-MDP bone scintigraphy for detection of bone metastasis in osteosarcoma. Skeletal Radiol. 2013;42(12):1673-81.
5.Volker T, Denecke T, Steffen I et al. Positron Emission Tomography for Staging of Pediatric Sarcoma Patients: Results of a Prospective Multicenter Trial. J Clin Oncol. 2007; 25:5435-41
6.Byun BH, Kong CB, Park J, Seo Y, Lim I, Choi CW, Cho WH, Jeon DG, Koh JS, Lee
SY, Lim SM. Initial metabolic tumor volume measured by 18F-FDG PET/CT can predict
the outcome of osteosarcoma of the extremities. J Nucl Med. 2013 Oct;54:1725-32.
6.Hawkins DS, Schuetze SM, Butrynski JE, et al. [18F] Fluorodeoxyglucose positron emission tomography predicts outcome for Ewing sarcoma family of tumors. J Clin Oncol 2005;23:8828–8834.
7.Im HJ, Kim TS, Park SY, et al. Prediction of tumour necrosis fractions using metabolic and volumetric18F-FDG PET/CT indices, after one course and at the completion of neoadjuvant chemotherapy, in children and young adults with osteosarcoma. Eur J Nucl Med Mol Imaging. 2012;39:39–49.
8. Cheon GJ, Kim MS, Lee JA, et al. Prediction model of chemotherapy response in osteosarcoma by 18F-FDG PET and MR imaging. J Nucl Med. 2009;50:1435–1440.
9.Franzius C, Daldrup-Link HE, Wagner-Bohn A, et al. FDG-PET for detection of recurrences from malignant primary bone tumors: comparison with conventional imaging. Ann Oncol 2002;13:157–16.
10. Blau M, Nagler W, Bender MA. Fluorine-18: a new isotope for bone scanning. J Nucl Med 1962;3:332–334
11. Schirrmeister H, Guhlmann A, Kotzerke J, et al. Early detection and accurate description of extent of metastatic bone disease in breast cancer with fluoride ion and positron emission tomography. J Clin Oncol 1999;17:2381–2389.
12. Schirrmeister H, Guhlmann A, Elsner K, et al. Sensitivity in detecting osseous lesions depends on anatomic localization: planar bone scintigraphy versus 18F PET. J Nucl Med 1999;40:1623–1629.

How to Cite this article:Purandare NC, Rangarajan V. EPurandare NC, Rangarajan V. Emerging role of PET/CT in osteosarcoma. Journal of Bone and Soft Tissue Tumors Jan-Apr 2016;2(1):19-21 .

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How important are surgical margins in Osteosarcoma?

January 10, 2016

Volume 2 | Issue 1 | Jan-Apr 2016 | Page 22-26 |Thomas P Cloake, Lee M Jeys.

Authors: Thomas P Cloake[1], Lee M Jeys[2].

[1]The Royal Orthopaedic Hospital, Bristol Road South, Birmingham, B31 2AP, UK.
[2]School of Health and Life Sciences, Aston University, Aston Triangle, Birmingham, B4 7ET, UK.

Address of Correspondence
Professor Lee M. Jeys
Professor of Health and Life Sciences
Aston University, Aston Triangle, Birmingham, B4 7ET, UK.
E-mail: lee.jeys@nhs.net

Abstract

Surgical resection combined with chemotherapy is the mainstay of treatment of osteosarcoma. Traditionally, surgical margins were based upon tumour grade and classified into marginal, wide or radical resection. The definition of these margins, however, remains subjective and recent research has questioned the need for wide or radical margins. Advances in surgical technique and the use of neo-adjuvant chemotherapy have led to an improvement in outcome. By reducing tumour burden, chemotherapy has provided surgeons with the option of limb salvage surgery rather than radical resection. Surgical margins and response to chemotherapy are now considered the two most important predictors of outcome in osteosarcoma. This review focuses on surgical margins with respect to limb salvage surgery and discusses the importance of response to chemotherapy.
Keywords: osteogenic sarcoma, osteosarcoma, surgical margins, chemotherapy, limb salvage surgery.

Introduction
Osteosarcoma is a high grade, primary tumour of bone in which the tumour cells produce osteoid [1]. It is the most common primary bone tumour, with an annual incidence rate of 5.0 per million [2]. Osteosarcoma is predominantly a disease of the young with a peak incidence in the second decade and displays a male predominance which is most pronounced at a younger age [3]. The treatment of osteosarcoma is challenging. The use of neo-adjuvant chemotherapy regimes combined with surgical resection has led to an improvement in outcome. Nevertheless, despite recent advances in surgical technique and chemotherapy agents, the survival rate has plateaued over the last 30 years [4]. There has been much research into prognostic factors that may help predict outcome in osteosarcoma, a number of these have been identified (see Table 1). Authors have suggested the most important, independent risk factors are the response to adjuvant chemotherapy and resection margins [5-7]. This review considers the impact of resection margins with a focus on limb salvage surgery and discusses the significance of response to chemotherapy.

Resection margins
There has been much debate around the margin of clearance required for surgical treatment of osteosarcoma. Enneking et al. were the first group to formally stage osteosarcoma into three distinct grades according to biologic aggressiveness, tumour site and distant metastases [8]. The authors suggested this system be used in surgical planning and inform the use of marginal, wide or radical resection margins. Nonetheless the definition of marginal or wide resection remains subjective and may vary between surgeons or units and has never been objectively defined (Fig 1). Kawaguchi et al. developed this concept by giving distinct numerical values for desired resection margin according to the grade to tumour suggesting a 2cm margin was required for low-grade tumours and a 3cm margin was needed for high-grade neoplasms such as osteosarcoma [9].More contemporary studies have failed to reach a consensus on a numerical value for an adequate resection margin. Li et al. reported there was no difference in local recurrence when wide (>5mm) margins and close (<5mm) margins were used [10]. Bispo et al. failed to detect a difference in local recurrence using a margin of 2mm [11]. Betrand et al. found surgical margin to be the only independent risk factor for local recurrence and suggested a margin of 1mm may be adequate [12]. These papers suggest resection does not require a strict numerical margin, however efforts should be made to ensure no margins are intralesional. However, international consensus is in equipoise regarding margins, and this has made interpreting research articles very difficult. Even within units, tumour clear margins and ‘wide’ margins have become interchangeable when in reality they may be completely different and may lead to inappropriate treatment for patients. In the oncological world, the concept of patient specific treatment or ‘personalised medicine’ is gaining popularity and what is correct for one patient, may not be suitable for another patient, even with the same tumour type.

Limb salvage surgery

Prior to the advent of effective chemotherapy, the surgical treatment for osteosarcoma involved early radical amputation or disarticulation of the affected limb. Whilst ensuring complete removal of the tumour, performing this radical surgery on young patients caused loss of function and permanent disability, without improving patient survival. Limb salvage surgery (LSS) aims to resect the tumour, whilst maintaining function of the preserved limb, all with minimal risk to the patient (Fig 2).

The emergence of efficacious chemotherapy regimes, which acted to reduce tumour burden and reduce metastatic spread, and enhanced imaging techniques such as CT and MRI have led to the increased use of LSS [13-15]. By definition, the use of LSS requires preservation of limb neurovascular structures and narrower surgical margins when compared to amputation. Preservation of tissue during tumour resection has led to the inevitable decrease in resection margins, which potentially risks causing an increase in local recurrence (Fig 3). There are conflicting reports on the rate of local recurrence in LSS with some studies reporting an increase [15-17] and others a decrease [18], when compared to amputation. Considering local recurrence is associated with poor outcome, much work has been done to examine the impact of LSS on survival. Simon et al. were one of the first groups to investigate outcomes following LSS in a multi-centre retrospective review of 227 patients. They reported LSS had a comparable survival rate with amputation at 5 years follow up [19] and provided the impetus for increased uptake of LSS amongst surgeons. A large study by Bacci et al. retrospectively compared the outcome in patients who underwent LSS to amputation. The authors report that whilst LSS was associated with reduced resection margins, local recurrence and 5-year disease free survival were comparable to amputation [20]. These results are confirmed by a number of other groups, with each describing a survival rate equal to or better than that of amputation [15,17,18,21-27].It is important to consider, however, these studies are limited by their retrospective nature. Without robust methods of randomisation, treatment decisions have been based on individual patient and tumour characteristics, local practice and patient choice, leaving them open to the influence of selection bias. Postoperative quality of life is an important outcome measure in osteosarcoma. As patients with osteosarcoma are young and can expect a prolonged period of survival following treatment, the demands put upon a salvaged limb or prosthesis can be great. It is essential, therefore to ensure there is minimal risk of technical failure, the limb provides adequate function for the individual patient and has an acceptable cosmesis for both the patient and their care givers. Measurement of quality of life in children is difficult and there have been relatively few studies assessing this outcome measure. Using objective quality of life scores, LSS and amputation groups report reduced quality of life compared to population norms [29,30]. A meta-analysis comparing quality of life in patients who underwent LSS and amputation found there was no significant difference between the 2 groups. Taking into consideration all the above evidence LSS remains a safe and effective management option and when used in combination with adjuvant chemotherapy offers a good survival outcome.

Chemotherapy/chemonecrosis

The introduction of chemotherapy regimes alongside surgical resection has led to a dramatic improvement in survival. The use of chemotherapy in the treatment of osteosarcoma began in the 1970s with the use of doxorubicin and high dose methotrexate regimens [31]. Administration of chemotherapy agents before surgical resection as neo-adjuvant therapy enhanced survival from10 – 20% to 70% [32].Current modern chemotherapy regimes are based on combination therapy using methotrexate, adriamycin/doxirubicin and cisplatin. Poor response to chemotherapy has been identified as an important independent risk factor for poor prognosis. Histological evaluation of surgical resection specimens permits the classification of response to chemotherapy as good (>90% tumour necrosis) and poor (<90% tumour necrosis). Patients who display poor response are consistently reported to have worse outcome [33,34]. A number of strategies have been employed to improve results in poor responders. Evidence suggests modification of chemotherapy regime may improve results. Several groups have showed intensification of pre-operative chemotherapy enhances tumour response [35-37] and may improve survival [38-40]. This benefit however, is limited and intensification of chemotherapy beyond a certain level does not improve outcome [36,41-43]. The use of high dose, intensive treatment to induce a good response early in the disease process has also been shown not to convey overall survival benefit [38,42-44]. Further work is therefore required to optimize tumour response and improve outcome in patients with poor chemotherapy response. A recent, large, multi-national study EURAMOS-1 investigated the effect of adding the additional agents, ifosfamide and etoposide, to salvage poor response to chemotherapy, as well as evaluating the addition of pegylated interferon for good responding tumours [45]. The published initial results suggest that the addition of interferon for good responding tumours appears beneficial, however, it was poorly tolerated and frequently refused by patients. Current practice involves assessing tumour response using resection specimens following surgery, after the completion of neo-adjuvant chemotherapy, to advise further treatment[45]. Considering tumour response to chemotherapy is such a significant prognostic factor, measuring response early in the disease process may inform further management choices. Non-invasive imaging techniques such as CT [46], MRI [47-49] and F-FDG PET [50,51] have all be used to investigate response to neo-adjuvant chemotherapy. A combination of F-FDG PET and CT (F-FDG PET-CT) scanning is widely used for the detection of many cancers. Meta-analysis of the current evidence for its use in osteosarcoma has shown F-FDG PET-CT to be a valuable modality to assess chemotherapy-induced necrosis [52]. Newer techniques for evaluating response to chemotherapy prior to surgery, such as functional MRI (fMRI) are also promising and may inform surgeon’s decisions in planning surgical margins.
Patients with poor response to chemotherapy present a complex management challenge. There have been few studies presenting evidence to guide the surgical management of these patients. Bacci et al. suggested that amputation should be considered in the setting of poor response to chemotherapy due to its significant correlation with local recurrence rates [20]. Recent work in Birmingham investigated the influence of resection margins on survival in patients with poor response to chemotherapy [28]. The authors showed there was no survival benefit gained from amputation when compared to LSS with close margins, irrespective of the risk of developing local recurrence [28]. These data demonstrate resection with preservation of the limb to be a safe surgical option even in patients with poor chemonecrosis.

Predicting outcome
The current classification systems used to grade osteosarcoma, pioneered by Enneking, incorporate tumour characteristics including the presence of metastases to guide surgical management and predict prognosis [8]. However, despite the widely accepted importance of response to chemotherapy in prognosis, the current classification fails to reflect this. In a recent presentation at International Society of Limb Salvage (ISOLS 2015), Jeys et al introduced The Birmingham Classification, which uses numerically defined tumour margins and response to chemotherapy to predict both local recurrence and survival. In this series, chemotherapy response was reported to show a significant effect on the rate of local recurrence and overall survival. It was also reported that a margin of 2mm was a statistically significant cut off value for predicting local recurrence. Furthermore, combining resection margins (greater or lesser then 2mm) with response to chemotherapy (good, >90% or poor, <90%) was more effective in predicting local recurrence and survival than other staging systems. This classification, however, requires further validation on a multi-centre basis.

Conclusion

Osteosarcoma continues to present a number to treatment challenges. Although surgical resection margins are an important predictor of outcome, limb salvage surgery with close margins has been shown to be a safe and effective surgical option. Response to chemotherapy is an important independent predictor of survival. A distinct group of poor responders exist, who despite modification to chemotherapy regimes and complete surgical excision of the tumour continue to have a poor outcome. Current classification systems have so far failed to reflect important prognostic indicators, the Birmingham Classification represents a new, robust system for classifying osteosarcoma and predicting outcome.

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How to Cite this article: Cloake T, Jeys L.How important are surgical margins in Osteosarcoma? . Journal of Bone and Soft Tissue Tumors Jan-Apr 2016;2(1):22-26.

Dr. Thomas P Cloake

Prof Lee M Jeys

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Emerging role of PET/CT in osteosarcoma

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How important are surgical margins in Osteosarcoma?

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Emerging role of PET/CT in osteosarcoma

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How important are surgical margins in Osteosarcoma?

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Emerging role of PET/CT in osteosarcoma

Nilendu C Purandare[1], Venkatesh Rangarajan[1]

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How important are surgical margins in Osteosarcoma?

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Authors: Thomas P Cloake[1], Lee M Jeys[2].

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